Adler, I., et al. “Apollo 16 Geochemical X-Ray Fluorescence Experiment: Preliminary Report.” Science. 177 (21 July 1972): 256-59. This is a technical study of a particular experiment conducted as part of the Apollo program.
Analysis of Surveyor 3 Material and Photographs Returned by Apollo 12. Washington, DC: NASA SP-284, 1972. A sophisticated scientific investigation, in 295 pages, of the Surveyor 3 data.
(Apollo 11 Lunar Science Results). Science. 167 (30 January 1970): (entire issue), 336 pp. This issue contains many individual articles on various aspects of lunar science.
Apollo 11: Preliminary Science Report. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration SP-214, 1969. Issued within months of the first lunar mission, this report gleans some of the major findings from the scientific instruments used and experiments conducted in July 1969.
Apollo 15 Preliminary Examination Team. “The Apollo 15 Lunar Samples: A Preliminary Description.” Science. 175 (28 January 1972): 363-75. A scientific discussion of the samples returned from Hadley Rille and the Apennine Mountains where Apollo 15 conducted its mission. During this mission the astronauts discovered what has been called the “Genesis Rock,” a sample of ancient lunar crust of great geological interest.
Apollo Field Geology Investigation Team. Preliminary Geologic Investigation of the Apollo 16 Landing Site. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey, 1972. This study traces the major investigations of Apollo 16 astronauts in the Descartes highland region of the Moon. Based on their geologic investigations, scientists found that a region previously thought to be volcanic turned out not to be.
Apollo Lunar Geology Investigation Team. “Geologic Setting of the Apollo 15 Samples.” Science. 175 (28 January 1972): 407-15. A scientific discussion of the geologic area where the Apollo 15 samples were recovered, including a discussion of the “Genesis Rock,” a sample of ancient lunar crust of considerable geological interest.
“Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package.” Space World. November 1969, pp. 4-18. This is a lay-oriented discussion of the scientific equipment placed on the Moon during Apollo 11 and some of the proposed experiments to be placed on the surface in future missions.
“Apollo’s Scientific Objectives.” Space World. August 1969, pp. 4-17. This is a lengthy discussion of the overall philosophy and method of accomplishment of the major scientific experiments to be conducted on the lunar surface. One of the major objectives was to discover the origins of the Moon and to lay to rest a series of internecine struggles between space scientists with opposing theories. The data from the lunar missions failed to bring about any true consensus on this contentious issue although it did point to interesting revisions of the debate about origins.
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project: The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Medical Report. Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service, 1977. This short publication, 129 pages, is an illustrated discussion of the biomedical results from this space flight, using both U.S. and U.S.S.R. flight data.
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Preliminary Science Report. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1976. In 529 pages, this loose-leaf report discusses the entire range of scientific experiments and results from the 1975 international mission with the Soviet Union.
Baldwin, Ralph Belknap. The Face of the Moon. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949. This is an important encapsulation of several centuries of research about the Moon—a basic primer on the subject written before the launch of the first lunar probes. As such, it provides a basis of comparison with later findings.
_____. Fundamental Survey of the Moon. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965. An important description of lunar science through the beginning of the space age.
_____. The Measure of the Moon. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963. Another important description of information about the Moon as known at the time.
Baldwin, Ralph B., and Wilhelms, Don E. “Historical Review of a Long Overlooked Paper by Reginald A. Daly Concerning the Origin and Early History of the Moon.” Journal of Geophysical Research. 97 (25 March 1992): 3837-43. One of the most hotly contested debates in space science has been the origin of the Moon. The Apollo program did not resolve the debate, and competing theories still abound. This is the most recent entry into the debate, looking at a paper by an early scientist dealing with the issue.
Berry, C.A. “Summary of Medical Experience in the Apollo 7 Through 11 Manned Spaceflights.” Aerospace Medicine. 41 (May 1970): 500-19. This is a sophisticated scientific paper describing the results of biomedical experiments during the early history of Apollo. It is especially helpful in discussing the problem of radiation and other effect on the astronauts during the missions to the Moon of Apollo 8 and 11.
Bless, Robert. “Space Science: What’s Wrong at NASA.” Issues in Science and Technology. 5 (Winter 1988-1989): 67-73. Not specifically concerned with Apollo, Bless’ analysis of the problems of NASA nevertheless includes that program. He uses the dichotomy between human space flight programs and satellite efforts as examples of how not to manage programs and concludes that the problems are historically rooted in the agency’s emphasis on astronauts.
Bluck, John. Journey Through the Solar System: Lesson Guide, a 13 Part Series. Cleveland, OH: Lewis Research Center, 1987. This 60-page, large-size monograph is an educational publication designed to provide information for secondary school teachers and students about Solar System science. One of the segments deals with lunar science, including the all important question of the Moon’s origin.
Bogard, D.D. “Noble Gas Abundances in Lunar Material: Cosmic Ray Spallation Products and Radiation Ages from the Sea of Tranquility and the Ocean of Storms.” Journal of Geophysical Research. 76 (10 April 1971): 2757-79. This lengthy scholarly article describes the results of geological research in the Sea of Tranquility and the Ocean of Storms that resulted from the explorations of Apollo 11 and Apollo 12.
Brush, Stephen G. “Early History of Selenogony.” In Origin of the Moon. Edited by Hartmann, William K.; Phillips, R.G.; and Taylor, G.J. Houston, TX: Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1986. Pp. 3-15. This article describes the debate over the origins of the Moon from the sixteenth century to the 1930s. Selenogony—the theory of origins of the Moon—was hotly debated during this era, but no definitive answers could be provided because the evidence required for a rigorous test of competing theories was obtained only with the lunar landings of Project Apollo.
_____. “A History of Modern Selenogony: Theoretical Origins of the Moon from Capture to Crash 1955-1984.” Space Science Reviews 47 (1988): 211-73. This important article traces the scientific debate about the origins of the Moon during the first three decades of the Space Age. In the 1950s G.H. Darwin’s fission was still occasionally mentioned but by the 1960s it had been displaced by the hypothesis of lunar capture. A few scientists favored formation of the Moon from particles in order around a growing Earth. Analysis of samples from the Apollo missions did not confirm any of these three theories of lunar origin. Eventually the giant impact theory, proposed by scientists W.K. Hartmann and D.R. Davis (1974) and by A.G.W. Cameron and W.R. Ward (1975), was adopted as the best working hypothesis. But the question was not satisfactorily solved and other theories are still being actively pursued.
_____. “Nickel for Your Thoughts: Urey and the Origin of the Moon.” Science. 217 (3 September 1982): 891-98. This important article describes in detail the theories of Harold C. Urey on the origin of the Moon. Brush compares them to earlier ideas, especially those of George Howard Darwin’s fission hypothesis. Urey’s espousal of the idea that the Moon had been captured by the Earth and has preserved information about the earliest history of the Solar System led him to advocate a manned lunar landing program. Results from the Apollo missions, in particular the deficiency of siderophile elements in the lunar crust, led him to abandon the capture selenogony and tentatively adopt the fission hypothesis.
_____. “Theories of the Origin of the Solar System 1956-1985.” Reviews of Modern Physics. 62 (January 1990): 43-112. This article describes efforts to find a plausible naturalistic explanation of the origin of the Solar System. During the period discussed, the first extensive field research was undertaken and this has brought about the development of several important theories of origins. During this period most scientists accepted the collapse of a gas-dust cloud to form the Sun with surrounding disk, and condensation of that disk to form planets. Theorists differed on how to explain the distribution of angular momentum between the Sun and the planets, on whether planets formed directly by condensation of gaseous protoplanets or by accretion of solid planetesimals, on whether the “solar nebula” was ever hot and turbulent enough to vaporize and completely mix its components, and on whether an external cause such as a supernova explosion set in motion the gas cloud’s collapse.
Buffalano, C. “A Physical Model of the Apollo Oxygen Releases.” Journal of Geophysical Research. 76 (1 January 1971): 27-35. This scientific paper provides an analysis of oxygen release discovered as a result of the Apollo lunar flights.
Bunch, T.E.; Prinz, Martin; and Keil, Klaus. Electron Microprobe Analyses of Lithic Fragments and Glasses from Apollo 12 Lunar Samples. Albuquerque, NM: Dept. of Geology & Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, 1972. Institute of Meteoritics Special publication no. 4. A basic report of scientific analysis of the samples collected during the November 1969 Apollo 12 mission to the Ocean of Storms.
Burrows, William E. Exploring Space: Voyages in the Solar System and Beyond. New York: Random House, 1990. A popular history, but a cut above the average, of the efforts to send probes to the planets, moons, and asteroids of the Solar System, this book does not dwell on project Apollo. It contains a solid chapter on Project Ranger, much of it apparently a summary of R. Cargill Hall’s Lunar Impact book, and other discussions of lunar probes and the scientific results about the Moon that came from Apollo. The book’s major drawback is its sometimes uncritical nature and lack of formal scholarly apparatus.
Catalogue of Apollo 15 Rake Samples from Stations 2 (St. George), 7 (Spur Crater), and 9a (Hadley Rille). Albuquerque, NM: Dept. of Geology & Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, 1973. This 75-page illustrated monograph simply catalogs the lunar samples taken from specific sites during the Apollo 15 mission of July-August 1971.
Catalogue of Apollo 17 Rake Samples from Stations 1A, 2, 7, and 8. Albuquerque, NM: Dept. of Geology & Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, 1978. This 88-page illustrated monograph simply catalogs the lunar samples taken from specific sites during the Apollo 17 mission of December 1972, the last landing on the Moon.
Comstock, G.M., et al. “Cosmic-Ray Tracks in Plastics: The Apollo Helmet Dosimetry Experiment.” Science. 172 (9 April 1971): 154-57. A straight-forward description of this experiment.
Cooper, Henry S.F. Moon Rocks. New York: Dial Press, 1970. This is an informal account of the first investigating team’s examining the lunar samples at Houston. Like everything that Cooper writes, it is very personal and descriptive of meetings that he attended with the scientific team working on the project. It is filled with interesting personality sketches and anecdotes of the intense effort to provide the first scientific assessment of the lunar samples.
Davies, J.E. “Preliminary Examination of the Apollo 12 Lunar Samples.” Spaceflight. 13 (January 1971): 24-29. A straight-forward description of scientific analysis of the samples collected during the November 1969 Apollo 12 mission to the Ocean of Storms.
Dowty, Eric, et al. Electron Microprobe Analyses of Minerals from Apollo 15 Mare Basalt Rake Samples. Albuquerque, NM: Dept. of Geology & Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, 1973. This monograph describes the lunar samples taken from specific sites during the Apollo 15 mission of July-August 1971, the first mission to use the lunar rover to travel widely in the vicinity of the landing site.
_____, et al. Electron Microprobe Analyses of Minerals from Apollo 16 Rake Samples. Albuquerque, NM: Dept. of Geology & Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, 1976. This monograph describes the lunar samples taken from specific sites during the Apollo 16 mission of April 1971.
Dyal, P., and Parkin, C.W. “The Magnetism of the Moon.” Scientific American. 225 (August 1971): 62-73. This paper documents the studies of the Moon’s magnetic field. The evidence suggests that while the Moon has no magnetic field today, it probably had a strong one in the past. This is based on an analysis of lunar samples that suggest the Moon’s field was somehow turned off about 3 billion years ago.
El-Baz, Farouk. Astronaut Observations from the Apollo-Soyuz Mission. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1977. This volume consists partly of text, partly of extensive photographs and maps of the Earth taken by astronauts on their training flights for the mission or taken on board the spacecraft to support the Earth Observations and Photography Experiment conducted during the mission. Another portion of the text consists of verbal comments made by American astronauts regarding that experiment. The remaining 122 pages of text consists of discussions of the scientific objectives of the mission, astronaut training, flight planning, mission operations, and a summary of the scientific findings of the mission in the areas of geology, oceanography, hydrology, meteorology, and environmental science.
Electron Microprobe Analyses of Lithic Fragments, Glasses, Chondrules, and Minerals in Apollo 14 Lunar Samples. Albuquerque, NM: Dept. of Geology & Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, 1973. This short, 38-page monograph describes the lunar samples taken from specific sites during the Apollo 14 mission of January-February 1971.
Elston, Wolfgang E. “How Did Impact Processes on Earth and Moon Become Respectable in Geologic Thought?” Earth Sciences History. 9 (1990): 82-87. A short, useful discussion of the development of procedures and theories about cratering on both the Moon and the Earth.
Esenwein, George F.; Roberson, Floyd I.; and Winterhalter, David L. “Apollo in Lunar Orbit.” Astronautics & Aeronautics. 9 (April 1971): 52-63. Remote-sensing instruments and cameras for the remaining Apollo missions shaped a broad interdisciplinary approach to lunar science that encompassed selenedesy, geophysics, geochemistry, geology, cartography, and particles and fields. This article discusses science on the remaining three Apollo missions and sums up what had already been done.
Firsoff, Valdemar A. The Old Moon & the New. South Brunswick: A.S. Barnes, 1970. This book, written for a general audience, discusses the development of lunar theory and describes its changes as a result of the Apollo missions then under way.
French, Bevan M., et al. Compositions of Major and Minor Minerals in Five Apollo 12 Crystalline Rocks. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1972. A sophisticated analysis of lunar samples returned from the Ocean of Storms by the Apollo 12 crew.
_____. Editor. The Moon Book: Exploring the Mysteries of the Lunar World. New York: Penguin, 1977. This book, written by a senior NASA scientist involved in lunar studies, describes the discoveries made about the Moon as a result of the lunar landings.
_____. “Space Rocks: Getting Our Hands on the Universe.” Air & Space. Fall 1980, pp. 3-5. Written for the non-specialist, this article describes in general terms the basic development of the Moon and meteorites using as a hook the rock samples that Apollo returned and the meteorite rocks that hit the Earth.
_____. What’s New on the Moon? Washington, DC: NASA EP-131, 1976. This short booklet is written as a series of questions and answers for secondary school students about the Moon. Such questions as “Is there life on the Moon?” and “What is the Moon made of?” are followed by answers phrased in non-technical language. This is a good basic primer about lunar science based on scientific investigations supported by Apollo.
Froehlich, Walter. Apollo 14: Science at Fra Mauro. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1971. A 48-page illustrated study, this monograph describes in lay terms the activities and scientific results of the January-February 1971 flight of Apollo 14.
_____. Apollo 16 at Descartes. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1972. A 32-page illustrated study, this monograph describes in lay terms the activities and scientific results of the April 1971 flight of Apollo 16.
Ganapathy, R., et al. “Apollo 12 Lunar Samples: Trace Element Analysis of a Core and the Uniformity of the Regolith.” Science. 170 (30 October 1970): 533-35. An early scientific discussion of the lunar sample analysis from Apollo 12 at the Ocean of Storms.
_____, et al. “Moon: Possible Nature of the Body that Produced the Imbrian Basin, from the Composition of Apollo 14 Samples.” Science. 175 (7 January 1972): 55-59. Another discussion of the lunar samples, this time from Apollo 14.
Geology of the Apollo 14 Landing Site in the Fra Mauro Highlands. Reston, VA: Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey, 1977. This monograph presents a scientific discussion of the samples returned by Apollo 14 and how they relate to the overall geologic development of the region.
The Great Project: Space Exploration and the Apollo Program, Scientific Insights and Tangible Benefits Derived for Mankind. Oberkochen/Wurtt., West Germany: Carl Zeiss in cooperation with the Bonn Office of the United States Information Service, 1971. This 140-page illustrated study summarized the major scientific findings resulting from Project Apollo. The book was designed for an international audience and placed the most positive spin on all of the scientific activities of the effort.
Gregory, William H. “Lunar Photos Reveal New Details.” Aviation Week and Space Technology. 20 December 1971, pp. 66-77. This rather detailed account of new information about lunar volcanism revealed by Apollo 15 photographs of the Moon includes a number of photographs and a schematic drawing.
Grodzka, P.G., and Bannister, T.C. “Heat Flow and Convection Demonstration Experiments Aboard Apollo 14.” Science. 176 (5 May 1972): 506-508. A straightforward scientific discussion of these experiments.
Hammond, A.L. “Lunar Research: No Agreement on Evolutionary Models.” Science. 175 (25 February 1972): 868-70. This article summarizes the results of the scientific studies of the Moon, the place of Project Apollo in them, and the disagreements between scientists over lunar origins and evolution.
Hanle, Paul A. and Chamberlain, Von Del. Editors. Space Science Comes of Age: Perspectives in the History of the Space Sciences. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1981. An important book with a series of articles by different specialists, it has chapters by Robert Jastrow (“Exploring the Moon”); Eugene Shoemaker (“Lunar Geology”); Stephen G. Brush (“From Bump to Clump: Theories of the Origin of the Solar System, 1900-1960”); and Homer G. Newell (“Continuing Harvest: The Broadening Field of Space Science”) that relate to the lunar science conducted as part of Project Apollo.
Harada, K., et al. “Evidence for Compounds Hydrolyzable to Amino Acids in Aqueous Extracts of Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 Lunar Fines.” Science. 173 (30 July 1971): 433-35. Scientific analysis of this subject.
Hartmann, William K. Moons and Planets. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1983. Originally published in 1972, this book reflects the lunar science conducted during Project Apollo in its analysis of the Moon.
_____. History of the Lunar Surface. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1966. A useful discussion of the development of the Moon written after the first probes had been sent there but before the lunar landings.
Head, J.W., III. “Lunar Volcanism in Space and Time.” Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics. 14 (May 1976): 265-300. This lengthy article examines the role of lunar volcanism as revealed from lunar-orbit and Earth-based data plus characterizations derived from lunar samples brought back on Apollo missions. The author concludes, among other findings, that there is little conclusive evidence for highland volcanism on the Moon; that lunar mare lavas seem to have originated at depths of 100 to 500 km.; that mare volcanism occurred from 3.83 to roughly 2.5 billion years ago; and that a thicker farside crust perhaps is responsible for the asymmetry between mare deposits on the near and far sides of the Moon.
Heiken, Grant H.; Vaniman, David T.; and French, Bevan M. Editors. The Lunar Sourcebook. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991. This book’s virtue is that it condenses into a useable form information from the U.S. and Soviet missions to the Moon in a reference work. It explores the formation and evolution of the Moon’s surface, the chemical and mineralogical nature of lunar rocks and soils, and the current state of scientific knowledge about the nature, origin, and history of the Moon.
Hess, W., et al. “The Exploration of the Moon.” Scientific American. 221 (October 1969): 54-60, 66-70, 72. A general overview of the lunar science underway and Apollo’s contribution to it.
Hetherington, Norriss S. “Winning the Initiative: NASA and the U.S. Space Science Program.” Prologue: Journal of the National Archives. 7 (1975): 99-107. This article is an important description of the struggle between NASA scientists and those outside the institution over control of projects, priorities, and resources. It finds that by the middle part of the 1960s NASA had gained suzerainty over the majority of the resources and could therefore direct the major science projects along paths that seemed most logical to the agency.
Hlava, Paul F., et al. Apollo 15 Rake Sample Microbreccias and Non-Mare Rocks: Bulk Rock, Mineral and Glass Electron Microprobe Analyses. Albuquerque, NM: Department of Geology & Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, 1973. This monograph analyzes the lunar samples taken from specific sites during the Apollo 15 mission of July-August 1971.
Jaffee, L.D. “Lunar Surface: Changes in 31 Months and Micrometeoroid Flux.” Science. 170 (4 December 1970): 1092-95. A study of the lunar surface, finding change over time.
Johnson, Nicholas L. Handbook of Soviet Lunar and Planetary Exploration. Science and Technology Series, vol. 47. San Diego, CA: Univelt, 1979. An encyclopedic approach to Soviet science of the space age, but now outdated because of the information presently available as a result of the end of the Cold War.
Johnston, Richard S.; Dietlein, Lawrence F.; and Berry, Charles A. Editors. Biomedical Results of Apollo. Washington, DC: NASA SP-368, 1975. This straightforward volume ranges in its coverage from crew health and inflight monitoring to inflight experiments on the Apollo missions with a useful section on the technology used for such everyday concerns as supplying astronauts with food, water, and waste management in space. A useful section at the end sums up what life scientists learned from Apollo.
King, Elbert A. Moon Trip: A Personal Account of the Apollo Program and Its Science. Houston, TX: University of Houston, 1989. This short memoir describes the scientific work on the lunar samples returned by the Apollo missions. King, a geologist and first curator of the returned lunar samples, worked at the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston as part of the in-house scientific group that planned for scientific lunar exploration, astronaut training, and care and analysis of the returned samples.
Kopal, Zdenek. Exploration of the Moon by Spacecraft. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd, 1968. This study describes the satellite probe missions to the Moon conducted in anticipation of the Apollo landings.
_____. The Moon in the Post-Apollo Era. Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel, 1974. A careful scientific study of the Moon incorporating the findings from the research conducted as part of Project Apollo.
_____. The Moon. Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel, 1969. A solid scientific treatise on the origins, geomorphology, and physiology of the Moon written at the time of the first lunar landings.
_____, and Carder, R.W. Mapping of the Moon: Past and Present. Boston: Reidel, 1974. A basic study of the lunar surface; takes a historical perspective.
Kuiper, Gerard P., and Middlehurst, Barbara M. Editors. The Moon, Meteorites, and Comets. The Solar System, Vol. 4. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963. A standard work on the subject written by one of the most influential of the lunar and solar system scientists working during the Apollo era.
Kvenvolden, K.A., and Ponnamperuma, C. Editors. A Search for Carbon and its Compounds in Lunar Samples From Mare Tranquillitatus. Washington, DC: NASA SP-257, 1970. A discussion of the scientific efforts to determine the extent to which carbon was present in rock and soil samples at the landing site of Apollo 11. The presence of carbon would help to determine the origin of the Moon and its relationship to Earth. The scientists found little evidence of carbon.
Latham, G., et al. “Seismic Data From Man-Made Impacts on the Moon.” Science. 170 (6 November 1970): 620-26. This scientific paper measured the amount of seismic activity at lunar landing sites using data coming from the Apollo expeditions.
Lauderdale, W.W., and Eichelman, W.F. Editors. Apollo Scientific Experiments Data Handbook. Houston, TX: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, NASA TM X-58131, 1974. A basic reference tool for scientists studying data returned from Project Apollo.
Levinson, A.A. Editor. Proceedings of the Apollo 11 Lunar Science Conference, Houston, Texas, 1970. New York: Pergamon Press, 1970. 3 vols., 2492 pp. This lengthy set of books contains papers presenting the latest findings about lunar science based on the data provided by Apollo 11 and earlier lunar observations.
_____. Editor. Proceedings of the Second Lunar Science Conference. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1971. 3 vols., 2818 pp. Papers presenting the latest findings about lunar science based on the data provided by Apollo missions and earlier lunar observations.
_____, and Taylor, S.R. Moon Rocks and Minerals. New York: Pergamon Press, 1971. This evaluation of the important findings resulting from the initial study of lunar rocks from Apollo 11 covers four general topics: mineralogy and petrology, chemical and isotope analysis, bioscience and organic geochemistry, and physical measurements and properties. The book discusses the absence of organic matter in the lunar samples’ rock textures as compared with those on Earth, the importance of these samples in revealing the history and origin of the Moon, and a variety of shock studies to ascertain the results of impacts upon trace elements, the lunar surface, radiation effects, and rare gases.
Lichtenstein, Bernard Robert. “Apollo 15 and 16 Subsatellite Magnetometer Measurements of Solar Wind and Magnetospheric Plasma Interactions with the Moon.” Ph.D. Diss., UCLA, 1978. Presentation of data on the solar wind based on Apollo data.
Light, D.L. “Photo Geodesy From Apollo.” Photogrammetric Engineering. 38 (June 1972): 574-87. A discussion for a non-scientific audience of the use of Apollo photography to advance geological and geographical information about the Moon. Heavy emphasis on equipment and how it was used.
“Lunar Exploration.” Astronautics & Aeronautics. (January 1969): 32-74. This is a special section with the following articles: Homer J. Stewart, “Lunar Exploration—the First Decade Raises more Questions than it Answers,” pp. 32-36; Harold C. Urey, “The Contending Moons,” pp. 37-41; Harold Masursky, “Lunar-Exploration Targets,” pp. 43-49; Albert R. Hibbs, “Surveyor Results,” pp. 50-63; James E. Conel, “What the Rangers Revealed About Lunar Geology,” pp. 64-68; Thomas C. Rindfleisch, “Getting More Out of Ranger Pictures by Computer,” pp. 70-74.
Lunar Geoscience Working Group. Status and Future of Lunar Geoscience. Washington, DC: NASA SP-484, 1986. An important statement of where lunar science stood as of 1986 and an agenda for future possibilities. It gives considerable credit to the explorations of the Moon supported through Project Apollo for advances in the field.
Lunar Sample Preliminary Examination Team. “Preliminary Examination of Lunar Samples From Apollo 14.” Science. 173 (20 August 1971): 681-93. A straight-forward description of scientific analysis of the samples collected during the January-February 1971 Apollo 14 mission to Fra Mauro.
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. Apollo 14: Preliminary Science Report. Washington, DC: NASA SP-272, 1971. A straight-forward description of the scientific analysis of data collected during the January-February 1971 Apollo 14 mission to Fra Mauro.
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. Apollo 17: Preliminary Science Report. Washington, DC: NASA SP-330, 1973. This lengthy, 650-page, study presents analysis of data collected during the last and most scientifically involved mission of Project Apollo.
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project: Summary Science Report. Washington, DC: NASA SP-412, 1977-79. This two-volume report discusses the entire range of scientific experiments and results from the 1975 international mission with the Soviet Union.
McCall, G.J.H. “The Lunar Controversy.” Journal of the British Astronomical Association. 80 (1969): 19-29, 100-06, 190-99, 263-69, 358-60. A very fine run-down of the state of the debate over lunar origins and evolution taking place between several influential scientists and their supporters.
Manned Spacecraft Center. Apollo 12 Preliminary Science Report. Washington, DC: NASA SP-235, 1970. Issued within months of the second lunar mission, this 227-page report gleans some of the major findings from the scientific instruments used and experiments conducted in December 1969.
Manned Spacecraft Center. Apollo 15: Preliminary Science Report. Washington, DC: NASA SP-289, 1972. Issued within months of the Apollo 15 mission to Hadley Rille and the Apennine Mountains, this report discusses, among other things, the so-called “Genesis Rock,” a sample of ancient lunar crust of wide geological interest.
Manned Spacecraft Center. Apollo 16: Preliminary Science Report. Washington, DC: NASA SP-315, 1972. This study traces the major investigations of Apollo 16 astronauts in the Descartes highland region of the Moon in April 1971.
Marvin, Ursula B. “Meteorites, the Moon and the History of Geology.” Journal of Geological Education 34 (May 1986): 140-65. A very good introduction to the study of Earth-impacting meteorites and how these relate to the cratering on the Moon, as well as a discussion of the origins of the Moon and its overall evolution.
Mason, Brian H. “The Lunar Rocks.” Scientific American. 225 (October 1971): 48-58. This is an analysis of the lunar samples returned during Project Apollo, written for the informed non-scientist. It is a condensation of many of the findings discussed at length in the book Mason wrote with William G. Melson.
_____. and Melson, William G. The Lunar Rocks. New York: Wiley Interscience, 1970. This book is a scientific assessment of the data gained from analysis of the lunar samples returned by Apollo 11.
McLane, James C., Jr. “Collecting and Processing Samples of the Moon.” Astronautics & Aeronautics. 5 (August 1967): 34-46. Describes the Lunar Receiving Lab and describes how samples will be maintained.
Minnaert, M. “Photometry of the Moon.” In Planets and Satellites. Kuiper, Gerard P., and Middlehurst, Barbara M. Editors. The Solar System, Vol. 3. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Pp. 213-48. A solid discussion of the scientific returns from early satellite and Earth-based study of the lunar surface.
Mitchell Edgar D. Psychic Exploration: A Challenge for Science. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1974. Edited by John White. Written by an Apollo astronaut, this book describes, in addition to other astronaut anecdotes, the attempts to link minds through ESP during the Apollo 14 mission. This was not a formally-recognized NASA experiment.
Mitroff, Ian I. The Subjective Side of Science: A Philosophical Inquiry into the Psychology of the Apollo Moon Scientists. New York: American Elsevier Pub. Co., 1974. Also published in Amsterdam. Reprinted Seaside, CA: Intersystems Publications, 1983. This important study raises questions about the nature of science and its ability to provide non-biased, objective answers to questions. Using the Apollo program scientists as a example, the author demonstrates the subjective nature of questions asked of scientific data and the answers that are based on incomplete data that could be interpreted in a variety of ways.
Moore, H.J., et al. Lunar Remote Sensing and Measurements. Reston, VA: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey, 1980. This Apollo monograph presents data from Apollo 15-17 orbital investigations.
Muehlberger, W.R., et al. Documentation and Environment of the Apollo 16 Samples: A Preliminary Report. Washington, DC: Apollo Lunar Geology Investigation Team, U.S. Geological Survey, 1972. This study traces the major investigations of Apollo 16 astronauts in the Descartes highland region of the Moon. Based on their geologic investigations, scientists found that a region previously thought to be volcanic turned out not to be.
_____., et al. Preliminary Report on the Geology and Field Petrology at the Apollo 17 Landing Site. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Interior, Geological Survey, 1972. This study presents analysis of data collected during the last and most scientifically involved mission of Project Apollo.
_____., et al. Documentation and Environment of the Apollo 17 Samples: A Preliminary Report. Washington, DC: Apollo Lunar Geology Investigation Team, U.S. Geological Survey, 1973. Like the preceding work, this study presents analysis of data collected during the last and most scientifically involved mission of Project Apollo.
Mulholland, J. Derral. “The Impact of Lunar Laser Ranging on Gravitational Theory.” Astronomy Quarterly. 6 (1989): 17-26. This study is important in showing the interrelationships of NASA and the scholarly community and how they used laser-ranging to developing important theories about lunar gravitation.
Murray, Bruce; Malin, Michael C.; and Greeley, Ronald. Earthlike Planets: Surfaces of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Moon, Mars. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1981. A basic science text on this subject using the latest findings.
Mutch, Thomas A. Geology of the Moon: A Stratigraphic View. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970. Provides an analysis of the Moon’s age and origin, shape and motion, volcanic activity and meteor bombardment as far as knowledge was available at the time of publication. Designed for college-level use, it employs the data returned from Project’s Ranger, Surveyor, and Lunar Orbiter, as well as Apollo in analyzing the features of the Moon.
NASA Editorial Review Board, R. Thomas Giuli (Chair). Apollo-Soyuz Test Project: Preliminary Science Report. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1976. NASA Technical Memorandum-X-58173. In 529 pages, this loose-leaf report discusses the entire range of scientific experiments and results that were undertaken during the 1975 international mission with the Soviet Union.
National Academy of Sciences, Space Science Board. Lunar Exploration: Strategy for Research, 1969-1975, Report of a Study by the Space Science Board. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1969. This study represents an attempt to answer the question, “how best to utilize the manned lunar-landing capability [achieved by Apollo 11] to realize the scientific objectives of lunar exploration.” Broadly, the board recommended “a shift of emphasis from technological development to exploitation of existing Apollo technology for scientific objectives.” Divided into chapters on “Lunar Age Measurements,” “Geochemistry and Petrology,” “Geophysics,” “Geology and Geomorphology,” and “Lunar-Science Management,” this short report provides a basis of comparison with the lunar research actually done on the ensuing Apollo missions to see the extent to which its recommendations were carried out.
Naugle, John E. First Among Equals: The Selection of NASA Space Science Experiments. Washington, DC: NASA SP-4215, 1991. This is an important monograph that traces the origin and evolution of the agency’s methods of selecting scientific experiments for flight. Naugle, a former NASA chief scientist, finds this activity’s source in the period immediately following World War II as scientists began using captured V-2 rockets to conduct research beyond the atmosphere. Although the selection process was taking shape before NASA was formed in 1958, it evolved rapidly during the agency’s formative years. By 1962 its essentials as a NASA policy had been established, and the agency has followed the general selection process since that time.
Nehru, C.E.; Warner, Richard D.; and Keil, Klaus. Electron Microprobe Analyses of Opaque Mineral Phases from Apollo 11 Basalts. Albuquerque, NM: Dept. of Geology & Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, 1976. This monograph describes the analysis of certain lunar samples taken from specific sites during the Apollo 11 mission of July 1969.
Newell, Homer E. Beyond the Atmosphere: Early Years of Space Science. Washington, DC: NASA SP-4211, 1980. Part memoir and part research project, Beyond the Atmosphere is an important study of the development of space science in NASA during the first fifteen years of the agency’s existence. Written by the head of the space science program within the agency until 1973, this book presents an especially candid portrait of the trials and successes of scientific endeavor within NASA.
Nicks, Oran W. Far Travelers: The Exploring Machines. Washington, DC: NASA SP-480, 1985. A memoir by one of the leaders of NASA’s scientific program, this book traces the development and employment of satellite probes launched by the agency. There are important discussions of Project Ranger and several other lunar probes. The emphasis is on equipment, data collection and dissemination, and internal struggles for say in the direction of programs and projects.
Nicogossian, Arnauld E. Compiler. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Medical Report. Washington, DC: NASA SP-411, 1977. A major discussion of the biomedical results of this important joint mission with the U.S. and the U.S.S.R.
O’Hara, M.J. “Lunar Geology in the Light of the Apollo Programme.” Endeavour. 30 (January 1971): 3-7. A general discussion of the major contributions of Apollo to the study of lunar geology.
Page, Lou Williams, and Page, Thornton. Apollo-Soyuz [experiments in space]. Washington, DC: NASA EPs-133 through 141, 1977. Pamphlet no. 1. The flight.—Pamphlet no. 2. X-rays, gamma-rays.—Pamphlet no. 3. Sun, Stars, In between.—Pamphlet no. 4. Gravitational Field.—Pamphlet no. 5. The Earth from Orbit.—Pamphlet no. 6. Cosmic Ray Dosage.—Pamphlet no. 7. Biology in Zero-G.—Pamphlet no. 8. Zero-G Technology.—Pamphlet no. 9. General Science. These nine pamphlets are based on investigators’ reports of experimental results, written with the help of advising teachers to serve as “curriculum supplements designed for teachers, supervisors, curriculum specialists, and textbook writers as well as for the general public.” Dr. Lou Williams Page, a geologist, and Dr. Thornton Page, an astronomer, brought their special expertise to the writing.
Page, T.L. “The Third Lunar Science Conference-I.” Sky and Telescope. 43 (March 1972): 145-50. A general discussion of the presentations made at this important scientific gathering.
Page, T.L. “The Third Lunar Science Conference-II.” Sky and Telescope. 43 (April 1972): 219-22. A general discussion of the presentations made at this important scientific gathering.
Pitts, John A. The Human Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned Space Program to 1980. Washington, DC: NASA SP-4213, 1985. This necessarily rather technical account traces the history of space medicine from its early days before the founding of NASA through the decade following the Apollo program. It covers the beginnings of NASA’s small life sciences program during Project Mercury, the struggles between NASA and the Air Force for funding of life science research, biomedicine during the Gemini and Apollo programs, the crisis that followed the Apollo 204 fire in January 1967, the biomedical results from Apollo, and the various reorganizations of the life sciences program in NASA that accompanied its evolution. It concludes with a look ahead to the Shuttle era that began in the 1980s.
Prinz, Martin, et al. Electron Microprobe Analyses of Lithic Fragments, Glasses, Chondrules, and Minerals in Apollo 14 Lunar Samples. Albuquerque, NM: Dept. of Geology & Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, 1973. This monograph describes the lunar samples taken from specific sites during the January-February 1971 flight of Apollo 14 to Fra Mauro on the Moon.
Rabinowitch, Eugene I., and Lewis, Richard S. Editors. “Man on the Moon: An Assessment.” Special Issue. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 25 (September 1969). This special issue of this prestigious journal was dedicated to Project Apollo. Many of the essays focus on scientific aspects of the mission.
Ringwood, A.E. “Petrogenesis of Apollo 11 Basalts and Implications for Lunar Origin.” Journal of Geophysical Research. 75 (10 November 1970): 6453-79. This scientific paper presents data from the first lunar landing in the Sea of Tranquility and relates it to the debate over lunar origins. The evidence is inconclusive.
Ryder, Graham. Catalog of Apollo 15 Rocks. Houston, TX: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 1985. A straight-forward description of the samples collected during the Apollo 15 mission to Hadley Rille and the Apennine Mountains where Apollo 15 conducted its mission. During this mission the astronauts discovered what has been called the “Genesis Rock,” a sample of ancient lunar crust of wide geological interest.
Sagan, Carl. “Harold Clayton Urey—In Memoriam.” Obituary. Icarus. 48 (1981): 348-52. This is an interesting piece about one of the key scientists concerned with lunar origins, written by a leading public intellectual who knew him well and remembered him fondly.
Salisbury, John W., et al. Editors. Bibliography of Lunar and Planetary Research, 1961. Bedford, MA: Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, Office of Aerospace Research, U.S. Air Force, 1962. A bibliography of scientific papers and books on the subject for one of the pivotal years in lunar science.
Simmons, Gene. On the Moon with Apollo 16: A Guidebook to the Descartes Region. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1972. This 90-page study traces for a non-scientific audience the major investigations of Apollo 16 astronauts in the Descartes highland region of the Moon. Based on their geologic investigations, scientists found that a region previously thought to be volcanic turned out not to be.
Simmons, Gene. On the Moon with Apollo 17: A Guidebook to Taurus-Littrow. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1972. This 111-page study for non-scientists presents analysis of data collected during the last and most scientifically involved mission of Project Apollo.
Sinton, William M. “Recent Radiometric Studies of the Planets and the Moon.” In Planets and Satellites. Kuiper, Gerard P., and Middlehurst, Barbara M. Editors. The Solar System, Vol. 3. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Pp. 429-41. An excellent overview of the early satellite investigations of the Moon conducted in 1959 and 1960.
Sjogren, W.L., et al. “Lunar Gravity via Apollo 14 Doppler Radio Tracking.” Science. 175 (14 January 1972): 165-68. An analysis of the data obtained by doppler on the Apollo spacecraft concerning lunar gravity, confirming earlier estimates of 1/6 of Earth’s gravity.
Smith, G. M.; Vrebalovich, J.; and Willingham, O. E. “Eyes on the Moon.” Astronautics & Aeronautics. 4 (March 1966): 74-83. A Discussion of Ranger photos and how they put to rest some old theories and stimulated new ones.
Smith, M.C., Jr., et al. “Apollo 14 Food System.” Aerospace Medicine. 42 (November 1971): 1185-92. A description of the hardware, food processing, and management procedures in place for food used on the Apollo 14 flight to the Moon.
Sutton, R.L., et al. Documentation of Apollo 17 Samples. Washington, DC: Apollo Lunar Geology Investigation Team, U.S. Geological Survey, 1972. A basic catalog of the lunar rock and soil samples returned on the flight of Apollo 17 in 1972.
Swann, G.A. Preliminary Description of Apollo 15 Sample Environments. Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey, 1971. A scientific discussion of the locations from which samples were returned from the Hadley Rille and Apennine Mountain areas where Apollo 15 conducted its mission.
Sykes, Egerton. The Moon Capture Theory of Hoerbiger After Fifty Five Years. London: Markham House, 1966. An important analysis of the rise, alteration, and fall of the theory of lunar origins that emphasized the gravitational capture of the Moon (then a wandering planetisimal) by the Earth.
Tatarewicz, Joseph N. Space Technology and Planetary Astronomy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. Much broader than lunar science, this important book analyzes the development of space science as a discipline in the period since the birth of NASA by noting the interrelationships of the scientific community with the space agency.
Taylor, Stuart Ross. Lunar Science: A Post-Apollo View; Scientific Results and Insights from the Lunar Samples. New York: Pergamon Press, 1975. An excellent book describing the scientific results from Project Apollo written for the Earth and space scientist.
_____. Planetary Science: A Lunar Perspective. Houston, TX: Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1982. Using the information gleaned from a lifetime of lunar science, this senior scientists describes the origin and development of the Solar System.
Tifft, William G. “Astronomy, Space, and the Moon.” Astronautics & Aeronautics. 4 (September 1966): 40-52. Many factors were involved in the selection of sites for lunar landings and astronomical observations. This essay outlines these factors and makes some suggestions.
Toksoz, N.M., et al. “Lunar Crust: Structure and Composition.” Science. 176 (2 June 1972): 1012-16. An excellent analysis of the lunar surface based on the latest data returned by the Apollo spacecraft, written so that it is understandable to a non-specialist.
Ulrich, George E.; Hodges, Carroll Ann; and Muehlberger, William R. Editors. Geology of the Apollo 16 Area, Central Lunar Highlands. Reston, VA: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey, 1981. Geological Survey professional paper no. 1048. This 539-page study traces the major geological investigations of Apollo 16 astronauts in the Descartes highland region of the Moon. Based on their geologic investigations, scientists found that a region previously thought to be volcanic turned out not to be.
Urey, Harold C. The Planets: Their Origin and Development. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952. A classic discussion of the origins of the Solar System, the author—one of the deans of planetary science—argued that the bodies of the system had condensed from a dust cloud that contained water vapor. It had been a cold condensation where low density material condensed first and higher density material like iron later. This cold origin thesis has been a central part of the debate over Solar System formation.
——-. “The Origin and Significance of the Moon’s Surface.” Vistas in Astronomy. 2 (1956): 1667-80. In this article Urey espoused the idea that the Moon had been captured by the Earth and has preserved information about the earliest history of the Solar System, which led him to advocate a manned lunar landing program.
U.S. Geological Survey. Apollo 17 Landing Site Geology. Houston, TX: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 1975. A discussion of the geology of the Apollo 17 site based on the lunar samples and written for a scientific audience.
Warner, Jeffrey. Apollo 12 Lunar-Sample Information. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1970. General description of the returns of lunar rock and soil during Apollo 12.
Warner, Richard D., et al. Catalogue of Apollo 16 Rake Samples from the LM Area and Station 5. Albuquerque, NM: Dept. of Geology & Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, 1976. This study traces the major findings from the raked samples of lunar soil recovered during Apollo 16.
Warner, Richard D., et al. Electron Microprobe Analyses of Glasses from Apollo 17 Rake Sample Breccias and Apollo 17 Drill Core. Albuquerque, NM: Dept. of Geology & Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, 1979. A scientific discussion of use to other lunar scientists.
Warner, Richard D., et al. Electron Microprobe Analyses of Olivine, Pyroxene, and Plagioclase from Apollo 17 Rake Sample Mare Basalts. Albuquerque, NM: Dept. of Geology & Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, 1976. A scientific discussion of use to other lunar scientists.
Warner, Richard D., et al. Electron Microprobe Analyses of Spinel, Fe-Ti Oxides, and Metal from Apollo 17 Rake Sample Mare Basalts. Albuquerque, NM: Dept. of Geology & Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, 1976. A scientific discussion of use to other lunar scientists.
Wasserburg, G. J. “The Moon and Sixpence of Science.” Astronautics & Aeronautics. 10 (April 1972): 16-21. An assessment of lunar science as revised by Apollo.
Whitaker, Ewen A. The University of Arizona’s Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, Its Founding and Early Years. Tucson, AZ: Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, 1985. One of the centers of lunar science was the University of Arizona, because of several key scientists located there and their access to excellent observatories. This book describes the development of the institution where they worked, along with describing their theories, controversies, and relations with NASA.
White, David R. Apollo Experience Report—Lunar-Sample Processing in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory, High-Vacuum Complex. Houston, TX: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 1976. NASA technical note D-8298. A short report on a complex topic. Wilhelms, Don E. Stratigraphy of Part of the Lunar Near Side. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1980. A comprehensive survey of findings from Apollo landings.
Wilhelms, Don E. To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist’s History of Lunar Exploration. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1993. This lengthy and detailed account of lunar exploration and science strikes a balance between personal memoir and history. As history it provides a detailed and contextual account of lunar geology during the 1960s and 1970s, and a less-detailed but informative account for the rest of the century. As memoir it provides an engaging story of the scientific exploration of the Moon as seen by one of the field’s more important behind-the-scenes scientists.
Wilhelms, Don E.; McCauley John F.; and Trask, Newell J. The Geologic History of the Moon. Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1348, 1987. An important short study of the origin and development of the Moon by a senior lunar scientist. Wilshire, Howard Gordon, and Jackson, E.D. Petrology and Stratigraphy of the Fra Mauro Formation at the Apollo 14 Site. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1972. This monograph presents a scientific discussion of the samples returned by Apollo 14 and how they relate to the overall geologic development of the region.
Winter, Thomas C., Jr. “Apollo Solar Experiments—Paving the Way for Advanced Solar Observation.” Astronautics & Aeronautics. 7 (March 1969): 64-71. A useful overview of the scientific experiments in solar science arising from Project Apollo.
Wolfe, Edward W., et al. The Geological Investigation of the Taurus-Littrow Valley, Apollo 17 Landing Site. Reston, VA: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey, 1981. With a section on Apollo 17 lunar surface photography by Raymond M. Batson, Kathleen B. Larson, and Richard L. Tyner. Geological Survey professional paper no. 1080 containing a “synthesis of Apollo 17 lunar surface data and sample results.”
Wood, John Edwin. Sun, Moon, and Sanding Stones. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. A useful survey of origins and evolution.
Wright, Frederick E.; Wright, F.H.; and Wright, Helen. “The Lunar Surface: Introduction.” In The Moon, Meteorites, and Comets. Gerard P. Kuiper and Barbara M. Middlehurst. Editors. “The Solar System, Vol. 4.” Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963. Pp. 1-56. This important overview describes the various theories of lunar origin and evolution then being debated in academic circles.
Wright, Hamilton; Wright, Helen; and Rapport, Samuel. Editors. To the Moon: A Distillation of the Great Writings from Ancient Legend to Space Exploration. New York: Meredith, 1968. A useful anthology of writing from the ancients to the present about the Moon. The essays are both scientific and cultural in orientation.